This comes in via Bubbles N. Thanks Bubbles.
You can find more about Rachel Carson here and there's more about Silent Spring here.
Although their role will probably always be less celebrated than wars, marches, riots or stormy political campaigns, it is books that have at times most powerfully influenced social change in American life. Thomas Paine's Common Sense galvanized radical sentiment in the early days of the American revolution; Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe roused Northern antipathy to slavery in the decade leading up to the Civil War; and Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, which in 1962 exposed the hazards of the pesticide DDT, eloquently questioned humanity's faith in technological progress and helped set the stage for the environmental movement.
Carson, a renowned nature author and a former marine biologist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, was uniquely equipped to create so startling and inflammatory a book. A native of rural Pennsylvania, she had grown up with an enthusiasm for nature matched only by her love of writing and poetry. The educational brochures she wrote for the Fish and Wildlife Service, as well as her published books and magazine articles, were characterized by meticulous research and a poetic evocation of her subject.
"Things Go Out of Kilter"
Carson was happiest writing about the strength and resilience of natural systems. Her books Under the Sea Wind, The Sea Around Us (which stayed on the New York Times bestseller list for 86 weeks), and The Edge of The Sea were hymns to the inter-connectedness of nature and all living things. Although she rarely used the term, Carson held an ecological view of nature, describing in precise yet poetic language the complex web of life that linked mollusks to sea-birds to the fish swimming in the ocean's deepest and most inaccessible reaches.
DDT, the most powerful pesticide the world had ever known, exposed nature's vulnerability. Unlike most pesticides, whose effectiveness is limited to destroying one or two types of insects, DDT was capable of killing hundreds of different kinds at once. Developed in 1939, it first distinguished itself during World War II, clearing South Pacific islands of malaria-causing insects for U.S. troops, while in Europe being used as an effective de-lousing powder. Its inventor was awarded the Nobel Prize.
When DDT became available for civilian use in 1945, there were only a few people who expressed second thoughts about this new miracle compound. One was nature writer Edwin Way Teale, who warned, "A spray as indiscriminate as DDT can upset the economy of nature as much as a revolution upsets social economy. Ninety percent of all insects are good, and if they are killed, things go out of kilter right away." Another was Rachel Carson, who wrote to the Reader's Digest to propose an article about a series of tests on DDT being conducted not far from where she lived in Maryland. The magazine rejected the idea.
Silent Spring
Thirteen years later, in 1958, Carson's interest in writing about the dangers of DDT was rekindled when she received a letter from a friend in Massachusetts bemoaning the large bird kills which had occured on Cape Cod as the result of DDT sprayings. The use of DDT had proliferated greatly since 1945 and Carson again tried, unsuccessfully, to interest a magazine in assigning her the story of its less desirable effects. By 1958 Carson was a best-selling author, and the fact that she could not obtain a magazine assignment to write about DDT is indicative of how heretical and controversial her views on the subject must have seemed. Having already amassed a large quantity of research on the subject, however, Carson decided to go ahead and tackle the DDT issue in a book.
Silent Spring took Carson four years to complete. It meticulously described how DDT entered the food chain and accumulated in the fatty tissues of animals, including human beings, and caused cancer and genetic damage. A single application on a crop, she wrote, killed insects for weeks and months, and not only the targeted insects but countless more, and remained toxic in the environment even after it was diluted by rainwater. Carson concluded that DDT and other pesticides had irrevocably harmed birds and animals and had contaminated the entire world food supply. The book's most haunting and famous chapter, "A Fable for Tomorrow," depicted a nameless American town where all life -- from fish to birds to apple blossoms to human children -- had been "silenced" by the insidious effects of DDT.
First serialized in The New Yorker in June 1962, the book alarmed readers across America and, not surprisingly, brought a howl of indignation from the chemical industry. "If man were to faithfully follow the teachings of Miss Carson," complained an executive of the American Cyanamid Company, "we would return to the Dark Ages, and the insects and diseases and vermin would once again inherit the earth." Monsanto published and distributed 5,000 copies of a brochure parodying Silent Spring entitled "The Desolate Year," relating the devastation and inconvenience of a world where famine, disease, and insects ran amuck because chemical pesticides had been banned. Some of the attacks were more personal, questioning Carson's integrity and even her sanity.
Vindication
Her careful preparation, however, had paid off. Anticipating the reaction of the chemical industry, she had compiled Silent Spring as one would a lawyer's brief, with no fewer than 55 pages of notes and a list of experts who had read and approved the manuscript. Many eminent scientists rose to her defense, and when President John F. Kennedy ordered the President's Science Advisory Committee to examine the issues the book raised, its report thoroughly vindicated both Silent Spring and its author. As a result, DDT came under much closer government supervision and was eventually banned. The public debate moved quickly from whether pesticides were dangerous to which pesticides were dangerous, and the burden of proof shifted from the opponents of unrestrained pesticide use to the chemicals' manufacturers.
The most important legacy of Silent Spring, though, was a new public awareness that nature was vulnerable to human intervention. Rachel Carson had made a radical proposal: that, at times, technological progress is so fundamentally at odds with natural processes that it must be curtailed. Conservation had never raised much broad public interest, for few people really worried about the disappearance of wilderness. But the threats Carson had outlined -- the contamination of the food chain, cancer, genetic damage, the deaths of entire species -- were too frightening to ignore. For the first time, the need to regulate industry in order to protect the environment became widely accepted, and environmentalism was born.
Carson was well aware of the larger implications of her work. Appearing on a CBS documentary about Silent Spring shortly before her death from breast cancer in 1964, she remarked, "Man's attitude toward nature is today critically important simply because we have now acquired a fateful power to alter and destroy nature. But man is a part of nature, and his war against nature is inevitably a war against himself�[We are] challenged as mankind has never been challenged before to prove our maturity and our mastery, not of nature, but of ourselves."
One of the landmark books of the 20th century, Silent Spring's message resonates loudly today, even several decades after its publication. And equally inspiring is the example of Rachel Carson herself. Against overwhelming difficulties and adversity, but motivated by her unabashed love of nature, she rose like a gladiator in its defense.
Wednesday, April 2, 2008
Monday, March 10, 2008
The Rest of the Notes - Prof. Sardesai (State of the Polity, Reservation Policy, Crime, Corruption and Politics, Communalism,
(State of the Polity, Reservation Policy, Crime, Corruption and Politics, Communalism, Self Determination, Secession, Authoritarian Trends in Indian Democracy)
I haven't been able to add too much to these notes in terms of pictures, relevant videos and too many examples etc. but since exams are approaching
i think this should do -
Cheers,
Harshil
PS If you guys, any of you wish to add to these notes you can email me!
State of the Polity in India
1) Decline of the Rule of Law
2) Political Apathy
3) Authoritarianism by a democratic government
4) Crime & Corruption
The Rule of Law –
Democracy brought about a complete transformation in our perception of the Rule of Law. In fact, the concept developed with the development of democracy in different societies – hardly 200 years ago (In the USA and France). In India, the British initiated the tradition of rule of law (the Indian Penal Code was initiated by them in 1850).
In this sense, the rule of law and liberal democracy are complementary to each other. The objective is to restrain the government, to protect the life and liberty of citizens and curb excesses of the government.
Democracy is described as government of the people, for the people and by the people. Any code of conduct, which has the support of the people is elevated to the rule of law. There are three underlying principles of the rule of law.
1) Representation
2) Equality
3) Liberty
All the Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution have provided for achieving social, political and economic justice in a secular Democratic Republic.
1) Representation: the Right to Free and Fair Elections, the Right to Vote, the Right to Recall, and the Right to Information about the candidates.
2) The Right to Equality: Guaranteed by Articles 14 – 18 of the Indian Constitution.
Article 14: Every citizen is equal before the Law
Article 15: Every citizen can profess the religion of his or her choice and there should be no discrimination on grounds of religion, race, sex, cast or place of birth
Article 16: Equality of Opportunity in matters of Public Employment and Education
Article 17: Abolition of untouchability
Article 18: Abolition of titles
3) Liberty: This is enshrined in Article 19 – 22
Article 19:
Freedom of Speech and Expression (includes the media)
Freedom of assembly
Freedom of forming associations
Freedom of movement around of India
Freedom of residence and settlement in any part of India (except J & K)
Freedom of profession and Occupation
This article is subject to certain restrictions:
- Speech and Expression is subject to reasonable restrictions such as – decency, morality, public order, defamation.
Article 20:
Protection in respect of conviction
Article 21:
Protection of Life and Liberty
Article 22:
Protection against arrest and detention and punishment has to be in accordance with the law i.e. every individual must be entitled to proper legal procedure (everybody has the right to have a lawyer).
Article 32: Right to Constitutional Remedies
Modern society has discovered new rights i.e. the right to a pollution free environment, the right to preserve forests, wildlife, the right to protect historical monuments and heritage sites. Today, many of these rights are being violated with impunity and people have lost faith in the government thus posing a threat to a democratic society.
The prospect that anyone can stand for elections as long as he or she is 25 years of age, is frightening because you have people who are criminals, smugglers etc. One can be detained but unless convicted, an individual can stand for elections.
In most cases, the politicians or the elected representatives do not show any accountability. Politicians and civil servants have become a law unto themselves and are seen as a necessary evil.
There is a crucial difference between the rule of law and rule by law. When you say rule of law, it implies, however high you may be, the law is above you. On the other hand, rule by law means that a small section remains above the law and bends the law to achieve its own ends. They exploit the common man for personal gain and misuse their power. Therefore we may add that we are either a functional anarchy or a dysfunctional democracy and have miles to go before we can call ourselves a civil society under the rule of law.
Political Apathy –
There is a symbiotic relationship between the government and the people and hence when people lose trust in the government and have an attitude of indifference, it is referred to as political apathy. Most citizens today have become mere spectators showing a lack of concern to what is going around them. The government representatives and the civil servants have become gladiators behaving as they like. There is an erosion of democratic values and people are not willing to fight back.
There is a lack of credibility, accountability, and transparency in the running of the government which is possible because the people have a ‘chalta hai’ attitude. The criminal justice system is inadequate and there is misuse of power by the rulers.
Charismatic leaders are few and far between. Politicians have no genuine will to implement ideas and manipulate the masses by resorting to divisive politics. There is an unholy alliance between politicians, civil servants, the judiciary, businessmen, and criminals and the people feel helpless in fighting the system.
‘Winnability’ of a candidate attracts talent of the wrong kind as it brings in it’s wake criminal gangs and accused under trials who become legislators.
The educated, affluent, urban voter feels that his vote does not count and hence he does not vote. This is because he has other means of influencing the organs of governments.
The poor and uneducated feel the need of a representative and therefore they go out and vote. As it turns out, most of the representatives do not work for the interests of the poor. The politicians and civil servants have become guardians of an oppressive system and therefore noone cares if any one of them is arrested and thrown into jail.
Authoritarianism By a Democratic Government -
The Indian constitution provides for the rule of law but sometimes the government acts in a manner that deals a sever blow to this concept and encourages authoritarian trends. For example, in the name of dealing with the communist revolt in Telangana in 1951, the first peasant movement that took place in independent India; crushing the naxalites, curbing smugglers and terrorists, the Indian Government has over the years passed certain acts and issued ordinances which give it absolute power. The government justifies its action stating that some people commit crimes and misuse constitutional provisions and go Scott free after taking recourse to judicial action. However, critics say that very often, it is the government that abandons the rule of law to achieve its political motives by crushing the opposition in order to remain in power. Whatever maybe the arguments on either side, it is true that in the last 50 years, such authoritarian tendencies have gathered momentum through the detriment of democracy and the rule of law in India.
The Fundamental Rights given by one hand have been taken back by the other because of certain exceptions and restrictions thus depriving the ordinary citizen of his rights in reality.
Eg. The Fundamental Rights are incomplete because they do not include the right to work and leisure.
The right to Freedom and Speech has many obstacles such as censorship moral policing – this was noted in Tehelka, and the case of Satyandra Dube.
Look up RTI extensively
Authoritarian Trends in Indian Democracy:
1950 – PDA
1958 – Armed Forces Special Powers Act
1971 – MISA
1975 – Emergency
1977 – CAFEPOSA and FERA
1980 – NSA
1982 – TADA
1994 – MCOCA
2001 – POTO - POTA
Various Draconian Acts not found in any other Democratic Country have been passed since independence, which repress the rights if the ordinary people.
1950 – PDA, passed as a result of the communist led revolt in Andhra Pradesh.
The Preventive Detention Act (PDA) was passed in 1950, which constituted a serious restraint to personal liberty and was in force till 1969. It gave the government the right to imprison without trial before any crime had actually been committed as a precautionary measure. For 19 years the PDA was enforced.
In 1958 the Armed Forces Special Powers Act was formed and it continues to date. It empowers the Armed Forces with extra ordinary powers of arresting without a warrant and killing in the so-called “disturbed” areas. The armed forces have used this arbitrarily in J & K and the North – East.
In 1971 the notorious MISA was passed to deal with the Naxalites, the secret agents of East Pakistan, smugglers etc. Maintenance of Internal Security Act is the full form of MISA. Thousands of people were detained for 3 months without trial. Many of them were set free when they went to court.
In 1975, the President curtailed the right of the detainees to go to court for protecting their fundamental rights. 1975 was probably the darkest hour of Indian democracy. This was on the 26th of June, 1975.
The press was muzzled – strict censorship. All the news agencies were fused into 1 agency – ‘Samachar’, controlled by the Government.
The ruling party at that time misused MISA and put all the opposition leaders behind bars.
The emergency lasted for 2 years.
In 1977, the Junta Party came to power with Morarji Desai as the Prime Minister. It abolished MISA but to check smuggling and economic offences, it enacted 2 laws. COFEPOSA and FERA. Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities and Foreign Exchange Regulation Act.
In 1980, the Congress with Indira Gandhi at the helm again came to Power and the NSA, National Security Act was passed, which was applicable to the whole of India except J & K. Anybody who acted prejudicial to the country could be arrested. This was the time when the Khalistan movement had begun.
In 1982, when the terrorist and extremist problem became acute, another repressive law called TADA (Terrorist and Desruptive Activities Act) was passed in 1985 and remained in power till 1995. Under this law anybody could be arrested, detained and even tortured if the government was convinced if he or she was engaged in anti state violence.
Under TADA, several politicians and human rights activists were arbitrarily arrested.
In 1994, Maharashtra formed the MCOCA – Maharashtra Control of Organized Crime Act.
The Government has tried to curtail the power of the Judiciary by clipping it’s wings since 1970. Many senior judges at the Supreme Court and the High Courtshave been superseded or transferred and their vacancies have been filled with pliable judges.
There are too many amendments made to the constitution in order to increase the powers to parliament and the cabinet and challenge the judiciary. There has been a misuse of emergency powers under Article 356 by the Government in power. There is also a tendency to pass ordinances at any time when parliament is not in session. This is undemocratic as it suspends the rights and freedom of the citizens.
Look up POTA and POTO and what it entails. The ordinance was passed in 2001 in the wake of the attacks in the US. It gave the government sweeping powers to arrest and detain anyone labelled as a terrorist and was used as a political weapon to harass ordinary citizens. POTA is a threat to freedom of expression.
The Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) has become an institution of influence and authority. There is complete politicisation of the Civil Services in India and very often bureaucrats and politicians become a law unto themselves and misuse their office. They look down with contempt on the ordinary citizens and are neither effective nor efficient. They are often pressurized by the politicians for personal gain.
Until the BJP Government came into power as NDA, there was a one party dominance in India of the Congress leading to dictatorial tendencies and nepotism. Fortunately today, other opposition parties and many regional parties are better organised and check the authoritarianism of personalized politics. On a positive note, the 44th amendment states that Emergency cannot be declared in the country unless there is an external attack.
If an ordinary citizen and the media can be more vigilant and active, authoritarian tendencies can be curbed and true democracy and the rule of law can take routes in the country.
Crime, Corruption, and Politics
Corruption is the demanding of illegal gratification by public servants for showing favour or disfavour. It is the wilful failure to perform duty by abusing authority for personal gain.
There are 2 types of Corruption:
- Extortive: Extracting money from the common man who is otherwise subject to harassment.
- Cooperative: When both parties are willing to be part of a corruptive practise
Today corruption in India is a cancer which slowly but surely eating into the vitals of the nation. There is rampant corruption in public life and many instances of misappropriation of funds at the cost of national interest. There is an unholy nexus between politicians, bureaucrats, and businessman and the underworld.
Reason why Corruption is Rising:
- Lack of Conscience
- Greed
- Degeneration of Values
- The existence of a parallel Economy
- General Apathy
Today many bureaucrats are appointed by politicians and therefore are not accountable to citizens directly. They lack ethical norms and want to further their own self-interests. There have been many scams in India in recent years.
- Bofors Scam
- Kargil Coffins Scam
- Harshad Mehta’s scam
- Ketan Parekh Scam
- Bharat Shah’s underworld Scam
- Tehelka scam
- Food for Fodder Scam
- Home Trade Scam
There have been many inquiry commissions to look into these scams but it is always the big fish who get away and the small tadpoles get caught.
In recent times the government has passed the Lok Pal Bill in order to appoint a person without political connections to look into corruption cases with the help of the CBI and the ACB.
Initially the meetings with the Lok Pal were held ‘in camera’. Now, after the passing of the RTI Bill in 2005, there is a legal machinery to act on cases of corruption and safeguard the interests of the public.
Crime is violation of law, which usually involves anti social behaviour for which the Law prescribes penalties. It implies acts of omission and commission.
There are many categories of crime according to the severity who commits the crime and how it is committed.
Organised Crime:
It refers to a group that regulates relations between various criminal enterprises. There are huge cartels, which run illegal business and manage to evade the law enforcement agencies by corrupting the public officials either through intimidation or extortion. Terrorism, prostitution, human trafficking
White Collar Crime:
Refers to offences done by individuals and businessmen in the course of their day to day activities. These people are respectable and affluent and rarely get caught. Adulteration, financial scams, hacking, all corporate crimes etc.
The Socio economic costs of the criminalization of politics is immense. The criminalization is pervasive in Indian politics. There is an entry of criminals into politics by un democratic means. They stand for elections in spite of having criminal records and commit acts in public office for their own personal gain. Muscle power and money play an important role as they are hand in glove with anti social elements. They become a law unto themselves by engaging in bribery, booth capturing, kidnapping candidates (and even killing them), rigging ballot boxes, intimidating voters.
Winnability of a candidate attracts talent of the worst kind and our legal system and police force are unable to nail the criminals because they are weak and inefficient. The political dons have the finance to buy votes and are not accountable to the voters. All this is a matter of concern.
Self Determination
Secessionism
State Sponsored Violence
Anti State Violence
The line between state sponsored violence and anti state violence is very thin.
The right to development, which was put forth by the United Nations, implies that the benefits of development must reach the people. This in a way implies the right to self-determination and is among the Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution. Article 55 of the UN establishes that self-determination can take place under the following conditions:
1) Population
2) Territory
3) A Government that can Rule
4) The Capacity to enter into International Agreements
Self Determination: Usually a distinct cultural or ethnic group demands autonomy or a separate state. India has several regional, linguistic, and tribal groups who have made such demands for political empowerment. In some cases the issue has been settled amicably through negotiation after an initial conflict. In other instances, the conflict continues giving rise to militancy and terrorism.
Mizoram and Jharkhand are examples of states, which have succeeded as a result of self determination.
Failed resolutions of crises are Vidharbha, Nagaland, Bodoland, (Bodo’s are a tribe who want their own land) and Kashmir.
Secession: The breaking away from the main political country on the basis of religion, race, or language, and the demand for political empowerment by a group leads to a separate identity and secession. Seperatist factors and ideological differences in a multi lingual multi ethnic and multi religious society encourage such insular trends an are a threat to the integration of a nation. In extreme cases, such sentiments may lead to terrorism. The Indian State has been quite successful in accommodating such pressures by granting autonomy.
Eg. Bangladesh – the yardstick of East and West Pakistan being together was Religion. This shows that Religion is not a unifying factor.
State Sponsored Violence: Divisive Politics in recent years has given rise to militant movements and insurgency. To counter this a country may embark on Military action against the divisive forces. The conflict that results may lead to both state sponsored and anti state violence. Internal security and territorial integrity are critical priorities to defend a nation. Today terrorism and sustained conflict with militants have heightened fears regarding India’s security. This is happening in Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, the North East, and other pockets. In recent years authority structures have weakened and this is a matter of concern as various factors are separating rather than assimilating the people. Ethnic and communal identities have become consolidated into divisive political boundaries. This feature is not peculiar to India alone and leads to new pressures and strains.
The Governments policy is to stem the trouble created in the country because the very synthesis of society gets undermined.
This is happening in Israel and Palestine, Syria, Chechnya and Russia, and Nepal. Gujarat and Nandigram is state sponsored violence. The waves of refugees and illegal migrants from and into neighbouring countries leads to further problems which the government tries to tackle aggressively. Violence whether of the Islamist fundamentalist kind or the equally dangerous networks with trans national connections have had a de stabilizing effect all over the World. Advances in communications technology and sophisticated weapons and explosives have enabled terrorist groups to strike effectively at well protected targets. Terrorism has become globalized and the arms trade is taking on a new dimension with narco - terrorism.
Communalism
Communal – means of the community – but in India it has a negative overtone. It has casteist, linguistic, religion based or regional overtones.
What is Secularism?
Denoting no religious bias – the anti thesis of communalism.
Religion plays an important role in India’s life. India never really has been secular.
Secularism originated in the West when there was a conflict between the church and the state during the middle ages. (The kings rebelled against the authority of the Church). Indian reformers who were educated in the British system during the 19th century adopted this ideology and it was later embodied in the Indian constitution.
2 Main Models of Secularism
1) Non Interventionist – Church and the State Co – Exist and the Church does not meddle in Religious Affairs and vice versa. The US follows this kind of a system. Thus religious leaders there are millionaires sometimes.
2) Non Discriminatory – The state treats all religions equally. This model is adopted in India.
Communalism is the very antithesis of secularism and finds expression in stereotypes, suspicions, hostility and violence (probably arises due to large illiterate masses).
Communalism is a form of ethnocentrism. “We group V/S They Group” mentality. Your group becomes the centre of everything.
There are different kinds of communalism based on religion, caste, race, ethnicity, or language and region. However, it is religious communalism which differs from other forms because it cuts across all identities of caste, language and region and has far reaching effects and riots are the most extreme expression of communalism.
There are 4 main elements that can be analyzed to define communalism.
1) The Followers of a Particular religion are induced by their leaders to believe that they have a common secular interest.
2) These secular interests differ from those of the followers of other religions.
3) These secular interests are antagonistic to those of other religious groups.
4) These interests are sustained by a religious ideology including symbols, rituals, and myths.
Communalism embraces a wide range of phenomenon from psychological attitude to collective aggression. Religion provides a source of ultimate meaning in a World of suffering and moral confusion and also creates a strong sense of identity for the group based on a common creed and bound together by a common history.
When such a group is led to believe that it suffers political and economic deprivation relative to other groups because of discrimination it can be mobilized to retaliate violently.
Pre British India enjoyed centuries of comparative peace and tolerance among the various religious communities.
The British policy regarding religion was officially one of neutrality because they were more interested in commercial and administrative concerns. (especially in the early years). The British Policies to bring about social reform (anti Sati, caste disabilities removal Act) The coming in of Christian Missionaries raised the cry of ‘Religion in Danger’, which became a significant factor leading to the War of Independence 1857. After 1857, the British Policy began alternating its favouritism on the basis of religion and this Divide and Rule Strategy fostered the growth of Communalism. One community would be played off against the other for benefits.
In 1885, The Indian National Congress was founded on a truly secular footing opening its doors to all religious communities.
At the turn of the century, Hindu symbols became a part of the Nationalist Struggle specially under the leadership of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Arbindo Ghosh. All this alarmed the Muslims within the Congress and they departed from the party and founded the Muslim League in 1906.This firmly established the era of party politics based on religious differences and contributed to the 2 Nation theory. Under the leadership of Gandhi in 1920, the Congress began to follow a more moderate course as he believed that religious differences could be peacefully resolved by awakening the true spirit of religion. However, he was not able to find a solution to the problem of communal disharmony. In 1923, Veer Savarkar published Hindutva, which influenced in the developed of a Hindu communal ideology. “Hindus are a nation, Muslims are a community… they cannot live side by side”. 2 years later the RSS was founded with the aim of developing loyal Hindu volunteers. The Muslims carried out hostile propoganda and consequently there were many communal riots in pre 47 India.
Jawaharlal Nehru and MK Gandhi worked towards the goal of secularism as a necessary component of a modern state and independent India chose to integrate secularism in its constitution.
The Process of Acquiring Independence in 1947 had caused divisions among Indians particularly among the religious minorities specially the Muslims who experienced a certain amount of fear and uncertainty. The formation of linguistic states encouraged not only religious but linguistic and regional groups to jockey for Political Power. The net result of all this was religious tension resulting in violence between the “we” group and the “they” group.
Riots today have a tendency to last longer, recur in the same places, are more bloody, because they use sophisticated weapons, they are better planned, directed against specific properties and places, use anti social elements brought from outside and have moved from small towns to developing industrial and commercial centers. The present situation of communal disharmony shows that the bitter memories of the past still linger and more importantly are being stage managed by people with economic and political motives.
Independent India had a virtually stagnant economy since jobs were scarce and resources were limited. A need was felt to organise into pressure groups to get a larger share of the economic benefits. Identification on religious lines was used to unify members as a “we” group in contrast to the “they” group. All economic inequalities are perceived as religious discrimination and create an environment of distrust and suspicion.
Very often religious symbols and stereotypes are constructed and in such an atmosphere, the slightest provocation intensifies feelings of tension and hostility and this is taken advantage of by communal groups to cause damage to rival economic enterprises.
Communal Riots usually involve a struggle between a minority and the Hindu majority. The expansion of trade and commerce in India and the opening of new markets in the Arab World led to some amount of prosperity among the Muslims and consequently created a certain amount of envy among the Hindhus. At the same time, many Muslims strongly felt that they were victims of prejudice and under represented in Government, police, and executive positions. This led to a certain amount of withdrawal from the activities in the Economic field and created the myth of Muslim backwardness. Similarly Political Powerlessness is another base for communal tension. All Political Parties use the communal card during elections and candidates are chosen on the basis of communal considerations.
Religious ceremonies and festivals are used to further political interests. Today coalitions between religious and secular parties have become common and block voting ensures the communalisation of Politics. Communal Groups use religious symbols and slogans to spread a communal ideology and incite the masses to take resort to violence. Religious prejudice is supported by selective perception and serves as a rallying point to spark off every communal riot. Communal propaganda by one organisation leads to counter propaganda by other groups and the so-called Political Leaders do not take any action against the culprits.
The Role of the Police has shown a manifest bias during communal riots since they deliberately overlook bodily injury and damage to private property and places of worship and tend to arrest trouble makers from minority religious groups. On the whole, the criminalization of politics and the communalization of religion poses a threat to India’s secularism.
Reservation Policy:
(Always comes as a short note or long answer)
A set of measures adopted by the government in favour of certain disadvantaged social categories, the purpose of which is to rectify the inequalities and discrimination that afflict them. There are several groups in the World, which have been given such positive discrimination for instance the blacks in USA (affirmative action). Women in Scandinavia are given special privileges. But in no other country is the system as widespread as it is in India. In the last few years, this positive discrimination has been extended to include women in the ‘quota’ system. The 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution reserves seats for Women upto 33% at the Local Body Level. (This year, the Mayor in Mumbai had to be a Woman). Surely Women are a disadvantaged minority in India and need help to raise their status. The focus should be on their strength rather than their suffering and therefore, Political Rights Should be accompanied by education and economic upliftment. The problem however is that with such cases, a completely incompetent candidate may come up.
Article 15 of the Indian Constitution prohibits any discrimination on the basis of creed, race, or caste. Article 16 conforms equality of all Citizens and Article 17 Abolishes Untouchablity, however the Constitution stipulates that the State has the right to adopt various measures in favour of ‘backward Classes’ so that they can benefit from these measures to promote their economic interests. The Constitution recognizes 3 Categories of the Population as Backward:
1) The Ex Untouchables (Scheduled Castes – 18% of India’s Population)
2) Scheduled Tribes (7% of India’s Population) – Physically isolated Tribes (Hill and Forest Tribes); Tribes do not have a caste system among them.
3) O. B. C – Other Backward Classes (most controversial – ill defined and ambiguous category because each state is free to decide which castes are covered and its size varies from region to region)
The advantages granted to the SC’s can be grouped under 3 categories:
1) Reserved seats in legislative bodies, important jobs in government, places in universities.
2) Scholarships, loans, land grants, medical care
3) Special Measures to be undertaken by the state such as campaigns against untouchability, bonded labour
Reservation in Legislative Bodies: In the legislative assemblies, the number of reserved seats is proportional to the % of untouchables in the overall population. The electoral system presents a certain paradox since in many cases, untouchable candidates in reserved constituencies are elected by a majority of non untouchables and most of the untouchables do not have an opportunity to vote since they are not registered in the reserved constituency. Eg. Cuffe Parade constituency in Mumbai.
In the area of education, most of the efforts have been concentrated on higher education since elementary education is free and open to all but in fact few untouchables complete their elementary education and fewer still enrol in medicine or applied sciences.
Reservation in Jobs: Most Dalits are concentrated primarily in the least prestigious government departments i.e. they are mainly class III and class IV employees such as clerks, sweepers, scavengers, peons. In fact, in certain menial jobs, they areas high as 80% and there is a clear under representation of SC’s in the higher-level jobs. As far as the bulk of the scheduled castes are concerned, reservations are only a means to alleviate their poverty and oppression; something that they have suffered for centuries. Preferential treatment in employment, education and government service has created a certain amount of consciousness of rights among them and they have become organised as they demand social justice. The system of positive discrimination however has created a controversy because the state, which is the largest employer encourages a welfare mentality. There is little disagreement that the disadvantaged sections of the population should be given special privileges but there is little agreement about who is deserving of this help, what form the help should take and what is the efficacy and propriety of what the government has done.
Critics of this system feels that reservation kills initiative and most of the scheduled castes have been reduced to a mass of beggars waiting for crumbs of bread that the government throws at them however, backwardness in India is defined in terms of caste and many of the backward castes use historical disadvantages to claim benefits from the system even though now they are well off. They have become attached to these measures and have a vested interest in claiming special privileges and reservations so that they form a ‘creamy layer’. This has created resentment among the upper castes especially in the villages where caste atrocities have increased.
The reservation policy was meant to be self-liquidating as a transitional arrangement is now in danger of ossifying into a permanent arrangement. The system of positive discrimination poses as many problems as it solves. In the 21st century, the majority of SC’s do not regard themselves as impure or believe that their status is assigned at birth because of their past karma.
The scheduled castes want a better life for their children and want to live with dignity. On the one hand they are still victims of prejudice and many of the so called westernized urban Indians exhibit an age old hatred for these groups. At the same time, the system of reservation continues to stigmatize them and alienates them from the rest of society.
The Mandal Commission was appointed in 1978 just after the emergency when Morarji Desai was the Prime Minister of India. It conducted a socio educational survey in the country and determined 11 indicators as criteria for defining socio economic and educational backwardness. It listed more than 3000 communities as backward and this population constituted 52% of India’s population. Accordingly it recommended 27% reservation for OBC’s, 49.5% for SC’s and ST’s. It submitted its report in 1980 by which time the Congress Government was back in Power. The Mandal Commission Report was kept in cold storage for 10 years. In 1989, VP Singh became the Prime Minister of India. He decided to implement the Mandal Commission Report. This led to widespread violence all over India – especially in the North. The Supreme Court was moved for grant of a state for implementation of the Mandal Commission Report and VP Singh had to resign.
Today the Mandal Commission suggestion is limited only to employment and not to promotions. The creamy layer should not be entitled to the concessions.
Thursday, February 14, 2008
Recent Developments in Global Warming
Awesome Ad - Btw
(These Notes Basically have concept notes)
Recent developments in Global Warming:
Bali conference for 1 month from the 18th of
November to the 18th of December
Australia signs the Kyoto Protocol as soon as the New Australian PM was elected.
Carbon Credits as a concept. Carbon footprint, ecological
footprint as a concept.
Indian Nobel Peace Prize joint winner. Dr. Rajendra Pachauri
and Al Gore – Both won on Environmental Issues.
Amazon forest has taken its toll on the Amazon – the amount
of deforestation, equals the size of Jamaica. From 2000 to this date, the forest cover has increased by 20%.
In Indonesia, individuals at the grass root level – if you
want to get married, you have to plant 5 trees,
In the emergency in 1975, Sanjay Gandhi placed emphasis on
tree plantation along with sterilization.
Ecology deals with the interdependence of humans, animals
and flora fauna.
In Greenland, the ice is melting and the effect is
halocegenic. Unfortunately it’s a tourist mania who are rushing to see that.
Global warming has also become fashionable – businesses are having areas of marketing that deal with global warming and raise consciousness. Eg. British Petroleum allows user to calculate their indivdual carbon emissions in China and gives them tips to reduce them.
Definition of Global Warming.
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation.
The global average air temperature near the Earth's surface rose 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the 100 years ending in 2005.[1] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes "most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations"[1] via the greenhouse effect. Natural phenomena such as solar variation combined with volcanoes probably had a small warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small cooling effect from 1950 onward.[2][3] These basic conclusions have been endorsed by at least 30 scientific societies and academies of science,[4] including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries.[5][6][7] While individual scientists have voiced disagreement with some findings of the IPCC,[8]the overwhelming majority of scientists working on climate change agree with the IPCC's main conclusions.[9][10]
Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global surface temperature will likely rise a further1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the 21st century.[1] The range of values results from the use of differing scenarios of futuregreenhouse gas emissions as well as models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more than a thousand years even if greenhouse gas levels are stabilized. The delay in reaching equilibrium is a result of the large heat capacity of the oceans.[1]
Increasing global temperature will cause sea level to rise, and is expected to increase the intensity of extreme weather events and to change the amount and pattern of precipitation. Other effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, trade routes,glacier retreat, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.
Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the future, and how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and public debate worldwide regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or reverse future warming or to adapt to its expected consequences.
This Video is a pretty Good Summary of Global Warming
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