What is a movement?
A movement is an organized, collective, mobilization to promote or resist change in an existing society. Practically every movement has an ideology and a leadership. And if it is successful it may become institutionalized. Every movement goes through trials of time and space and may face some amount of resistance.
“Every movement leaves some impact on society”
Indian Women’s Movement: (Or is there really one?)
(Pre British Period)
The Women’s Movement in India (IWM) has been multi layered, multi classed, issue oriented, and sporadic, with several streams of ideological thought and varying strategies. It somehow has no origin since it seems to have always been there as an emotion. It has undergone various phases and there are some events and dates that are of importance.
The basic premise is that women are an oppressed section of Indian society. The early beginnings of this movement can be traced to the 1800’s when it emerged as a part of the social reform movement, which was initially led by men who had to face social ridicule and even religious persecution as they fought against some of the injustices perpetrated on women. As a part of a prolonged campaign, the British passed the anti sati act in 1829 and in 1856, the Widow remarriage act. This gradually led to a public recognition that the woman was an entity in her own right and set in motion courses, which encouraged women to get educated. The Arya Samaj and the Bramho Samaj organized Mahila Mandals to create awareness among women to learn and socialize. By the early 1900’s, women’s organizations sprang up all over India mainly in urban centers and a number of Women, social workers, doctors, teachers, and scholars emerged.
In 1905, some women leaders joined the nationalist movement and by 1930, there was mass participation of Women in the non cooperation and civil disobedience movements led by Gandhi. Gradually a new equal rights approach began to focus on legal and social rights of women so that they could have access to equal opportunities like men. The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) was established in 1924 and became the single largest National Voice for the demands of divergent groups of women mainly from the middle class.
During the British period, small changes took place in the status of women through reforms and legislation.
(Post British Period)
After 1947, women’s activism gave way to the development of institutions and organizations supported by government. A numerically small but conspicuous group of women began to enter the economic sector-giving rise to the image of the new emancipated Indian woman.
It has been noted that post independence there has never been a national feminist movement so there is restricted feminism in India in a sense.
1950: The Constitution if India was framed and it could boast of many progressive laws such as the right to vote, the right to equal wages.
In 1955, the Hindu code bill was passed which comprised of:
1) The Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act, which for the first time gave the Hindu woman the right to divorce, the right to inter cast marriage, it prohibited bigamy, raised the age of marriage to 15 for girls and 18 for boys and made registration of marriage compulsory.
(Historically the British first rose the ages to 8 years for girls and 12 years for boys)
2) The Hindu Succession Act gave women the right to inherit property.
3) The Hindu Adoption Act allows Hindu women to adopt a child.
However, many women were disillusioned because the demand for a uniform civil code applicable to all communities was not taken up. The feminist movement in India became fragmented as some women joined political parties. In the 1960’s, various movements took shape and some of the organizations were militant and took up gender related issues especially in the tribal areas where young women volunteers organized struggles. (the women were known as Shramik Shranagans)
In 1961, the anti dowry act was passed. In the 70’s and 80’s the focus shifted from development to confrontation and middle class and working class women became aware of their collective strength. Some of then joined trade unions while others led economic and social struggles by getting involved with political parties. There were agitations against price rise and consumer protection groups came up.
(Mrinal Gore – the Socialist Party of India ‘the paniwalli bai’)
(Ela Bhatt of SEWA)
In 1971, abortion was legalized. Mass struggles led to a spate of activities all over India and created awareness among all sections of women. The United Nations declared 1975 as the International Women’s Year and this added momentum to the participation of women in various organizations and forums like the ‘Stree Mukti Sangathana’ in Mumbai, ‘Saheli’ in Delhi and the progressive organization of Women in Hyderabad. Feminist groups from the urban educated middle class began to raise issues focusing on violence against Women and redefined the concepts of Womanhood both within and outside the family. In 1984, the anti dowry act was amended making dowry a non-bail able offence. In 1981, CEWDO was adopted and it had a tremendous influence in India as it focused on Human Rights for Women.
The demand for independent women’s organizations came from women themselves in a changing socio economic and political climate. Many newsletters and magazines were published.
Manushi by Madhu Kishwar is the best womens magazine in India.
Though the women’s organizations did not have a uniform perspective, there was a realization that it was necessary to attack sexist and stereotypical concepts through the media particularly advertisements.
The media has a very powerful role to play with ads, music videos, the news etc.
New social movements in rural India took place in the mid 1980’s and almost half the participants were women. Women leaders addressed gender inequalities in the rural areas.
Indian laws and reality are far apart. In the 1800’s the anti Sati act was passed but in 1987 Roop Kanwar, a poor widow was forced to commit Sati. Merely laws are not enough.
By the 1990’s the entry of women into professions, research studies, journalism, and audio visual media signaled a progressive evolution from a patriarchal society in the urban areas and a transformation in the definition of feminism. At the World conference on women in Beijing in 1995, Hillary Clinton stated that it is no longer acceptable to discuss women’s rights separately from human rights and the conference agreed on a ‘platform for action’ calling upon governments across the World to improve the status of women. In India what is important is that the various movements by different sections of women have woven together to create an attitudinal change by looking at women in a holistic manner. Support groups, legal aid centers, counseling, have all helped to create a consciousness and pressurize the government into establishing the National Commission for Women (NCW).
There is a department for women’s affairs at the cabinet level and women’s cells in the police department and reservation for women in local bodies.
Mathura rape case is another case of failure of the human rights of women.
On the whole, the Indian Women’s Movement has varied in form but it has brought about a societal recognition for women in public life given her economic independence and equal participation in a series of activities. In this way, the IWM has focused on self-determination and a collective identity for women.
Lesbian and Gay Rights:
Throughout history, homosexuality has been stigmatized and consequently homosexuals have bee persecuted and tortured by government and society. It is only in recent years that a social movement for lesbian and gay rights has emerged in different countries of the World. The 1st social movement to advance the civil rights of lesbians and gay men was founded in Germany in 1897 by the scientific humanitarian committee, which fought to abolish legal penalties against homosexual behavior and to educate people about gay rights and women rights. This committee was crushed by the Nazis in 1933 and subsequently at least 20, 000 people identified as homosexuals died in the concentration camps.
The symbol of gay prisoners was a pink triangle, which they were forced to wear. In the USA, the first homosexual organization was founded in Chicago in 1924 and by the 1950’s, a number of homosexual groups came into existence. Many of them were involved in other social movements of the 50’s and 60’s. This allowed them to reflect directly on their own oppression and gave them greater organizing ability to start their own movement. The gay movement actually began in New York City on June 28th 1969. Police raided Stonewall Inn, which was an after-hours gay bar and forced the patrons onto the street but instead of going away, the patrons locked police inside the bar and rioted. For the next three nights, lesbians and gay men marched through the streets of New York protesting against discrimination. Within months gay liberation groups appeared in cities and campuses throughout the US and similar organizations were evident in Canada, Great Britan, Australia, and Western European Countries. The gay movement gave many individuals the support and strength to ‘come out’ of the closet and assert their identity publicly.
In 1986, the US Supreme Court ruled by a narrow 5:4 vote that the constitution does not protect homosexual relations even among consenting adults in the privacy of their homes. By the 1990’s, lesbian and gay activists began to organize community centers and professional associations were formed. They began to focus on issues of human rights and stereotyping in the media. After the AIDS crisis, self-help groups were established to care for the sick and educate the healthy.
Some lesbians have felt the need to maintain separate organizations because of their less privileged position as women. They wish to assert their female identity and proclaim their love and desire for each other specially when they are exposed to abusive situations. In 1993, there was a massive demonstration in Washington DC involving thousands of lesbians and gays and their supporters. 9 States of the United States adopted civil rights laws to protect lesbians and gays from discrimination in employment, housing, and other areas. Countries like Norway, Sweden, Israel, Holland, and South Africa have enacted national bans against anti gay discrimination. Like any other movement, this movement has met with opposition and resistance especially from conservative politicians nd fundamentalist religious groups.
In 1996, the US Supreme Court by 6:3 vote stated that the US Constitution cannot deny equal protection guarantees to Lesbians and Gay men. At the same time there was resistance to the possible legalization of same sex marriages.
The US Army has a ‘don’t ask don’t tell policy’
In 1993, Clinton considered issuing an order against anti gay discrimination within the Military but met with opposition from military leaders and politicians. In 1994 a compromise was devised known as ‘don’t ask don’t tell’. However, there were reports of violations of this new policy and women were often accused of being lesbians if they filed sexual harassment charges. In some instances, Anti Gay prejudice has lead to violence and even killings. This movement has today spread to more than 70 countries including small towns.
In India Section 377 penalizes homosexuality. Groups such as Hamsafar, Aanchal, and Hamjinski have done their bit to make the issue relevant
Trade Union Movement in India
A trade union consists of any kinds of workers in Organized Sectors. The agricultural sector is untouched by any movements. Agrarian issues are not homogenous throughout the country. Trade Unions in America are like huge corporations – almost like bureaucratic organizations.
Trade Unions are not the same as labor movements.
The working class movement in India is a response to the challenge thrown by the modern factory system, which brought about labour practices like low wages, child labour, long hours of work and so on.
Some social reformers agitated against these unfair practices and the government passed certain laws after 1875 for improving the conditions of the labourers. While the labor movement was for labour, the trade union movement was by the labour when the workers organized themselves into trade unions to fight for their rights. Therefore the trade union movement is a part of the labour movement in India.
After 1918, the Russian Revolution signaled the start of the communist party in different parts of the World. In 1919, the ILO (International Labour Organisations) was formed. In India in 1920 , the AITUC – The All India Trade Union Congress was formed under communist leadership. At the end of World War I, prices and profits had risen but wages were still low. This resulted in strikes in the textile mills of Mumbai, Ahemadabad, Solapur and Madras, the Woolen mills of Kanpur and the Jute Mills of Calcutta. To some extent these strikes were successful and encouraged by this success, the workers began to organize themselves into trade unions. Some of the National Leaders also tried to tackle the problem of the labour and this introduced a political element in trade unions.
Between World War I and World War II, the labour movement continued under the shadow of the national sruggle. A number of strikes were organized after the depression of the 1930’s many of which were militant in order to protect and promote the interests of the workers. As the trade movement gained momentum, the workers became aware of their collective strength. On the one hand, there was the revolutionary class struggle under the dominance of the communists and on the other hand there were certain leaders who asked for constitutional remedies. The British Government was forced to enact certain laws but most of them favoured the employers.
After 1947, the trade union movements split along political lines and entered an eventful phase. Since the AITUC was led by the socialists and communists, the congress party which came into power formed the INTUC which is the labour wing of the Congress. In 1949, more radical splinter groups arose.
This arguably was the end of the trade union movement.
HMS – Hind Mazdoor Sabha. Controls the BEST, Taxi Workers, Municipal Conservancy Workers. Particularly powerful in Mumbai. Sharad Rao is their leader.
Various Trade Unions – UTUC: United Trade Union Congress under the Communists.
There were then communist moderates, communist Marxists – and under each one of them too they had divisions.
CITU – Center for Indian Trade Unions (Totally Marxist).
Almost every political party irrespective of ideology promoted a labour wing and union members began to grow. In the 60’s and 70’s some powerful All India Federations were formed representing various categories of employees.
Government encourages occupation based Unions.
The 1980’s was a period of economic unrest and this led to various forms of violence by workers in the struggle.
In 1982/ 83 there was a 600 day strike led by Dutta Samant for the Mill Workers. The strike was a disaster, the mills shut down. Workers committed suicide, were unemployed, some stayed on – were unemployed and still are.
The labour policy of the Government of India has encouraged the formation of Trade Unions and several legislations have been passed to regulate labour policies. In the last few years, unfortunately, the trade union movement has also been split along communal lines especially in Mumbai by the Shiv Sena.
Questions: What are the main issues threatening the trade union movements in India?
Ans:
- There are too many trade unions and this multiplicity leads to inter union rivalry.
- Many of the trade Unions are small in size and hence financially weak.
- The Political Parties exploit the workers for their own vested Interests.
- Many of the Trade Unions are led by outsiders eg. Dutta Samant. They often have no interest in the workers welfare.
- The labour laws are weakly implemented and there is excessive reliance on courts. No settlements. Adjudication rather than arbitration.
- Only 10% of the organized sector is covered by Unions.
- Agriculture is untouched by Unions.
- There is exploitation of casual and contract labour.
- Lack of worker participation and democratic management in the Unions.
- Unionism is growing among white collar workers.
- Due to strikes, many work hours are lost.
- In developing countries – workers only make economic demands and are oblivious of their duties responsibilities.
- The Challenge of the trade Union movement is to organize itself, reduce political influence, and generate accountability. For this, it is necessary to groom the right kind of leadership and overcome inequalities based on ethnic origin. Small unions must be amalgamated into larger ones so that they become financially viable. Unions must undertake welfare activities and there should be greater involvement of workers. All unions must be registered and recognized by the government and the real strength must come from within.
Peasant Movements in India: (A Global Overview)
The peasantry suffers form severe handicaps such as small land holdings, competition from other farmers for scarce resources, dependence on nature so that the peasant is affected by natural calamities, work with the help of family labour and exclusion from decision making beyond the village and therefore the inability to articulate their interests at the national level and unite as a class.
India is predominantly an agricultural country and it is possible to differentiate farmers in terms of their relationship with the ownership of land. Different authors have studied various parts o India but studies on peasant movements are of recent origin. This is because the Indian peasant has always been treated as an underdog who is illiterate, malnutritioned, fatalistic, technologically backward and passive but infact the Indian Rural scene has been bristling with militant protest since the mid 19th century but the British on their part treated most of the peasant struggles as a law and order problem. The Indian peasant has over the years been exploited as cheap labour and it was only during the freedom movement that the peasantry began to emerge as a socio economic formation. Most peasant struggles have been localized and specific to certain regions. They have been seldom violent and whenever this has happened, they have been brutally repressed by the government in power.
The movements in India have assumed various forms and methods in terms of issues, ideology, and leadership. Several scholars have discussed whether it is the caste system of the Hindu Religion, which has been an obstacle in preventing the poor peasants from being organised. It is only when there is a crisis that the peasants have agitated and revolted.
Pre 1947 – 1857 to 1921
The initial phase cantered on enhancements of rent, evictions by landlords, and exploitation by moneylenders. These efforts were unorganised and confined to particular regions. In the state of Hyderabad, which was under the Nizam, the British increased the taxes and many of the peasants abandoned their homes as they could not pay the taxes. In Maharashtra, the Maratha peasants revolted against the oppression of the moneylenders in 1875. In Bengal there was a revolt against the zamindars and when it turned violent, many of the farmers were shot down by the British.
In 1900 there was an agitation in Punjab but before trouble could erupt, a relief act was passed. Although the peasant struggles before 1921 were primitive in nature, they created a certain amount of political consciousness among the peasants. Besides this, there was another campaign launched by the Congress Party against the indenture system.
1921 - 1947
With the emergence of Gandhi, the peasantry emerged as a class. Gandhi led the struggle in Champaran against the Indigo plantation owners. Satyagraha was used for the 1st time and it gradually spread to other parts of India and forced the government to give some relief to the farmers. Millions of farmers joined the non cooperation movements and in this way, were sucked into the whirpool of political life. There was a struggle in Bardoli under Vallabhbhai Patel in 1928 – 1929. In Kerala, the Moplah rebellion took place in Malabar region and was given a communal twist by the British. Many revolutionaries during this time came from the rural areas and although their struggles were suppressed, it created a National Consciousness among the peasants. The all India Kisan Sabha was formed in 1935 and its leaders began to organise movements in different parts of the country. During the Quit India Movement, many farmers, organised their own groups and destroyed government property.
1947 – Present
The 3rd phase has been more radical and militant occasionally marked y violence. The Indian Government introduced many agrarian reforms and legislations such as zamindari abolition, land to the tiller but by and large most of these laws remained on paper and even today peasants continue to be poor, landless, and exploited.
He who tills the land must own the land.
In the early years after independence, the communists were active in organising uprisings in the rural areas.
Tebhaga movement in Bengal – 3 parts – division of Bengal into 3 parts.
Telanghana Movement
Tripura – Manipur revolts
Thanjavur (Tanjore) in Tamil Nadu
Naxalbari movement in Bengal by Maoist groups helped by China. Then it spread to Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and even Maharashtra.
All these early peasant movements succeeded only for a certain period of time and their leadership was brutally crushed. Some of them were involved in terrorism and this did not really help to improve the conditions of the farmers.
In the mid 1980’s there was a new social movement in Rural Maharashtra with the long term goal to empower the rural population it was a struggle for social justice specially associated with caste and gender.
Today political parties are competing with each other in championing the interests of the peasants but most of them lack a clear perspective.
Gale Omvedt married a Maratha Farmer.
In recent years, a tidal wave of farmers process is sweeping across rural India. It is led by rich farmers who have found a common cause with the poor farmers. It’s significance lies in the fact that it has sectarian appeal on the one hand and on the other hand it reflects the people’s growing disillusionment with political parties. The leadership of this movement has its roots in the soil and it is modern in that it revolves around the question of incomes, prices and inputs. Many of the leaders are educated and are therefore able to articulate the interests of the rural masses. This movement is better organised in the more advanced agricultural regions and symbolizes a new rural chapter in Indian politics. (Shetkari Samangatha)
In conclusion, peasant struggles in recent years have shown a surprising degree of militancy in seeking to bring about economic and social justice. The peasants have found a common cause to fight against the common ‘urban enemy’ represented above all by the government.
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Tribal Movements in India
Tribals in India are a heterogeneous group as they differ racially and culturally therefore it would be unrealistic to pigeon hole tribal movements as one. Most of the tribes are concentrated in central and north east India. Those in central India are spread over several states but in spite of their heterogeneity they show a remarkable degree of cultural and political unity. On the other hand, the tribals in the north east present a complex picture because of racial and ethnic distinctions and there have been several inter-tribal clashes.
-Jharkand has immense wealth.
The 5TH AND 6TH SCHEDULE OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION designates tribal areas as scheduled and states that they should have the power to enact laws and administer themselves. There is a commission set up by the government to deal with the scheduled tribes. It must be remembered that most of the tribals are economically weak and politically unorganized and they have been exploited and evicted forcibly from their own lands.
They have been physically isolated. Many of them may not even know anything about the Indian struggle and then suddenly one day they are told that they are part of India. This did not sit well with them as they did not know anything about India. Can you isolate them? Or should we integrate them? This has been a big question for our govt. Most of the tribals did not even have a caste system – Largest number of tribals are in North east India. They say that they are TRIBALS and that’s it. This is why they are “scheduled” and are given some other benefits. They are the forest people – they are “adivasis”
Civil rights groups have been fighting for tribal rights. Eg. Narmada Bachao.
When the British came to India they came into conflict with various tribes in different parts of the country and many tribal kingdoms were annexed and the British system of administration was introduced. Consequently the tribals lost their lands. Some of the tribal chiefs resented the loss of power and revolted against the British and were crushed brutally. After 1947, the tribes have continued to agitate against government policies and some of them have launched movements. They look upon the government as an enemy as the government has not recognized their ownership and relationship with forests. Anthropologists have classified tribal movements but most of the classifications do not take into account the fact that the movements may be overlapping in nature and cannot be categorized in a neat, precise, manner. Vidyarthis classification is sensitive to the question of the political importance of movements.
1) Reactionary – It seeks to re-establish a social and political order that has long gone by. Eg. Nagas wanting things to go back – get back their lost kingdom.
2) Conservative – It defends the status quo and opposes any change. This is what happened when the British came about.
3) Revisionary – This seeks to transform tribal modes of life in such a manner that they get themselves absorbed into Hindu society and its characteristic forms or political activities. Meities – tribe from Manipur – completely Hinduised.
4) Revolutionary Movements – Rejects the existing social and political system and wants to replace it with a new one. Movements want autonomy – taken place in Mizoram, Nagaland, Jharkhand.
Jharkhand – movement started violently and gradually by attuning themselves by aligning with the State, Jharkhand was created.
Jharkhand literally means the land of the jungles and Geographically the term refers t the whole of the chota NAgpur plateau of Central India covering 15 districts of WB, Bihar, MP and Orrissa. The Jharkhandis followed a communal system of production. By the turn of the 18th Century, they became exposed to the outside World and the Forces of Capitalism began to corrode the foundations of Community life. Both Hinduism and Christianity had an influence in this predominantly tribal land. After independence, economic issues came into prominence as the tribals began to lose their land to ‘outsiders’ and many of them became either tenants on their own land or even bonded labourers. They were alienated from the forest by the moneylenders and forced out of their villages. A small tribal elite class emerged and it mainly consisted of those who had benefited from Western Education introduced by the Christian missionaries. Tribal politics gradually emerged and political mobilization led to the formation of the Jharkhand Party, which tried to broaden the scope of the Jharkhandi identity. In the 2nd general elections of 1957, this party got 75 lakh votes but subsequently it did not do well. It was only in 1972 with the establishment of the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha that the movement for a separate State began to gather momentum. A deal was struck with the Congress Party but there were divisions within the movement, which made it, lose its militancy. In the 1980’s, the demand for political autonomy was made in New Delhi and an agreement was signed by the then Chief Minister of Bihar – Laloo Prasad Yadav and in the presence of the Prime Minister Narasimha Rao on 27th September 1994 to form an autonomous council covering 17 districts of Bihar and 25% of the States budget would be allocated to this council. By 2003, the differences between the Christians and backward Non Christian Tribals had narrowed down and there was a re alignment of political forces and the new state of Jharkhand emerged with its capital at Ranchi. It is the richest state in India today in terms of Natural Resources but yet it has the poorest people – it has been exploited. There are 4 industrial townships, Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Sindhri Fertilizer Factory, and Hatiya.
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